Origins
Social Constructivism is a recent import into European Union studies, yet as Chris Brown states, it is the "fastest growing oppositional movement within IR theory" (2005:48).
Traditionally, International Relations theories can be classified in two categories; 'Rationalist' and 'Reflectivist,' with theories such as Liberalism and Realism typically being seen as Rationalist while progressive theories such as port-modernism, feminism and Critical Theory form the basis of Reflectivism. Rationalism is the belief that the world can be understood and explained through the exercise of human reason, based on assumptions about its rational structure (Heywood: 2007: 44). Whereas Reflectivism focuses on the interpretation of events rather than empirical data (Smith: 2001: 42).
Social Constructivism arises out of the view that neither of these two categories produces a complete method for understanding the International System. Social Constructivism sought to be distinct by not only finding a middle way between Reflectivism and Rationalism, but as Rosamond states, by being more of an ontology than a theory. In this way it seeks to give a position of the nature of social reality, and as Rosamond continues, it follows that there are many Constructivism with Rationalist theories (2006:131).
Key Thinkers
An early Constructivist was Nicholas Onuf, he believed that the world in which we live is a "world of our making," that things are a certain way because that is how we perceive them, we do not live in world that has been predetermined in advance by non-human forces (Onuf: 1989).
Alexander Wendt echoes this view; he developed the 'thin approach' of Social Constructivism. His key belief is that "anarchy is what states make of it" (Wendt: 1992) and that in fact states are actively involved in constructing anarchy. He believes that anarchy cannot be treated as 'given,' it is not something that can condition state action without itself being conditioned by state action (Brown: 2005: 49). Wendt further argues that the possibility exists that within an anarchic framework norms can emerge (Wendt: 1999).
Jeffrey Checkel developed the 'thick approach' of Social Constructivism. He argues that power is created by everyday actions. He further argues that Constructivism questions the materialism and methodological individualism on which much contemporary scholarship has been built (Checkel: 1998).
Despite their criticisms of rationalist theories, Wendt and Checkel do see the use of Rational research methods as essential with regards to the study of the EU. Checkel states that "constructing European institutions is a multi-faceted process, with both Rationalist and Sociological toolkits needed to unpack and understand it" (2001: 50).
Theory
Constructivists argue that they are best placed to study European Integration as a process. This is because they are predisposed to think about how humans interact in way that produce structures (Rosamond: 2006: 130). They also believe that as Constructivism takes the middle ground, they are able to "engage in meaningful conversations" with both Rationalists and Reflectivists (Risse & Wiener: 1999).
Social Constructivists such as Wendt believe that interests are socially constructed rather than pre-given. As Brown states:
"The central insight of constructivist thought can perhaps best be conveyed by the notion that there is a fundamental distinction to be made between 'brute facts' about that world, which remain true, independent of human action, and 'social facts' which depend for their existence on socially established conventions." (2005: 49)
Social Constructivists are interested in how collective understandings and identities emerge; they argue that we must investigate the ways in which identities such as 'European Citizenship' are constructed through the use of language, the development of ideas and the establishment of norms, in this way, identities are never fixed, they are simply constructed (Rosamond: 2006: 130). The view that the EU develops through the establishment of norms rather than changing as a result of external factors such as the Cold War and increasing globalisation is the core of Social Constructivism and clearly contrasts with Rationalist views which place great emphasis on these external factors.
Following on from this, Constructivists believe that it is through the internalisation of these norms that actors acquire their identities and establish what their interests are. Rosamond refers to this as the "constitutive effect of norms," this is the way in which European-level norms, ideas and discourses penetrate into the various national polities which make up the EU (2006: 131).
Social Constructivism examines the way in which institutions such as the European Union act as arenas for communication and persuasion (Rosamond: 2006: 131). As Jupille et al. (2003) state, "Constructivists emphasise a process of interaction between agents and structures."
Impact
As a relatively new theory, the impact of Social Constructivism on International Relations studies has yet to be clearly defined, however in European Union Studies, it has become more influential following the signing of the Amsterdam Treaty. It can also be argued that its modern approach and situation in the middle ground between Rationalism and Reflectivism makes it ideal for studying the complex nature of the EU. As Rey Koslowski states, "a Constructivist approach is useful because Constructivist analysis is not wedded to existing legal structures or political organisations as 'units of analysis' per se" (1999: 565).
It is also important to see the benefits offered by the wider range of models within Social Constructivism, especially thin and thick theories. This variety, as well as Social Constructivism's belief that it can meet half-way and so work with both Rationalists and Reflectivists makes it, as Rosamond, Checkel and Risse & Wiener have all identified, a useful tool for studying European Integration.
Critique
Social Constructivism claims to occupy the middle ground, as Risse & Wiener state, "Constructivism shares with Rational choice an epistemological commitment to truth seeking, and the belief that causal generalisation in the form of middle range theories is possible" (Risse & Wiener: 1999). However, it is criticised for its failure to occupy this middle ground without straying to one side. For example, Steve Smith sees Constructivism to be "far more 'Rationalist' than 'Reflectivist'" (1999: 683). Indeed, Smith believes that Constructivism will split into two main camps, one more Rationalist, the other more Reflectivist, this he states, is due to "fundamentally different epistemological assumptions" (Smith: 1999: 690).
This difficulty in clearly defining the 'middle way' offered by Social Constructivism leads to a situation where it is difficult to see clearly what Social Constructivism might offer to the European discourse, despite each individual model offering sometimes challenging ontologies.
Moravcsik clearly identifies this weakness, he states that Social Constructivism has "contributed far less to our empirical and theoretical understanding of European [studies] ...certainly far less than existing alternatives" (Moravcsik: 1999: 670).
Bibliography
- Brown, C. (2005) Understanding International Relations, 3rd Edition, Palgrave Macmillan
- Checkel, J.T. (2001) Social Constructivism and European Integration in Christiansen, T. Jorgensen , K. & Wiener, A. The Social Construction of Europe, Sage Publications
- Checkel J.T. (1998) 'The Constructivist Turn in International Relations Theory (a review essay)' World Politics (50) 324-348
- Heywood, A. (2007) Politics, 3rd Edition, Palgrave Macmillan
- Jupille, Caporaso & Checkel (2003) 'Intergration Institutions: Rationalism, Constructivism, and the Study of the European Union.' Comparative Political Studies (36 1/2): 7
- Koslowski, R. (1999) 'A Constructivist to understanding the European Union as a Federal Polity.' Journal of European Public Policy (6:4) 561-78
- Moravcsik, A. (1999) '"Is something rotten in the state of Denmark?" Constructivism and European Integration.' Journal of European Public Policy (6:4) 669-81
- Onuf, N. (1989) World of our Making, University of South Columbia Press
- Risse, T. & Wiener, A. (1999) ''Something Rotten' and the Social Construction of Social Constructivism: A Comment of Comments.' Journal of European Public Policy (6:5) 775-82
- Rosamond, B. (2006) New Theories of Integration in Cini, M. European Union Politics, 2nd Edition, Oxford University Press
- Smith S. (1999) 'Social Constructivism and European Studies: A Reflectivist Critique' Journal of European Public Policy (6:4) 482-91
- Smith S. (2001) Social Policy is what States make of it: Social Constructivism and International Relations Theory, in Kubálková, V. Foreign Policy in a Constructed World, ME Sharpe Inc. (USA)
- Wendt, A. (1992) 'Anarchy is What States make of it: The Social Construction of Power Politics.' International Organization (46) 391-426
- Wendt A. (1999) Social Theory of International Politics, Cambridge University Press.
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